ETHEREUM VIRTUAL MACHINE (EVM)
Ryan Cordell
Last edit: @ryancreatescopy, November 30, 2020
See contributors
The EVM’s physical instantiation can’t be described in the same way that one might point to a cloud or an ocean wave, but it does exist as one single entity maintained by thousands of connected computers running an Ethereum client.
The Ethereum protocol itself exists solely for the purpose of keeping the continuous, uninterrupted, and immutable operation of this special state machine; It's the environment in which all Ethereum accounts and smart contracts live. At any given block in the chain, Ethereum has one and only one 'canonical' state, and the EVM is what defines the rules for computing a new valid state from block to block.
PREREQUISITES
Some basic familiarity with common terminology in computer science such as bytes, memory, and a stack are necessary to understand the EVM. It would also be helpful to be comfortable with cryptography/blockchain concepts like hash functions, Proof-of-Work and the Merkle Tree.
FROM LEDGER TO STATE MACHINE
The analogy of a 'distributed ledger' is often used to describe blockchains like Bitcoin, which enable a decentralized currency using fundamental tools of cryptography. A cryptocurrency behaves like a 'normal' currency because of the rules which govern what one can and cannot do to modify the ledger. For example, a Bitcoin address cannot spend more Bitcoin than it has previously received. These rules underpin all transactions on Bitcoin and many other blockchains.
While Ethereum has its own native cryptocurrency (Ether) that follows almost exactly the same intuitive rules, it also enables a much more powerful function: smart contracts. For this more complex feature, a more sophisticated analogy is required. Instead of a distributed ledger, Ethereum is a distributed state machine. Ethereum's state is a large data structure which holds not only all accounts and balances, but a machine state, which can change from block to block according to a pre-defined set of rules, and which can execute arbitrary machine code. The specific rules of changing state from block to block are defined by the EVM.
A diagram showing the make up of the EVM
Diagram adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
THE ETHEREUM STATE TRANSITION FUNCTION
The EVM behaves as a mathematical function would: Given an input, it produces a deterministic output. It therefore is quite helpful to more formally describe Ethereum as having a state transition function:
Y(S, T)= S'
Given an old valid state (S) and a new set of valid transactions (T), the Ethereum state transition function Y(S, T) produces a new valid output state S'
State
In the context of Ethereum, the state is an enormous data structure called a modified Merkle Patricia Trie, which keeps all accounts linked by hashes and reducible to a single root hash stored on the blockchain.
Transactions
Transactions are cryptographically signed instructions from accounts. There are two types of transactions: those which result in message calls and those which result in contract creation.
Contract creation results in the creation of a new contract account containing compiled smart contract bytecode. Whenever another account makes a message call to that contract, it executes its bytecode.
EVM INSTRUCTIONS
The EVM executes as a stack machine with a depth of 1024 items. Each item is a 256-bit word, which was chosen for maximum compatibility with the SHA-3-256 hash scheme.
During execution, the EVM maintains a transient memory (as a word-addressed byte array), which does not persist between transactions.
Contracts, however, do contain a Merkle Patricia storage trie (as a word-addressable word array), associated with the account in question and part of the global state.
Compiled smart contract bytecode executes as a number of EVM opcodes, which perform standard stack operations like XOR, AND, ADD, SUB, etc. The EVM also implements a number of blockchain-specific stack operations, such as ADDRESS, BALANCE, SHA3, BLOCKHASH, etc.
A diagram showing where gas is needed for EVM operations
Diagrams adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
EVM IMPLEMENTATIONS
All implementations of the EVM must adhere to the specification described in the Ethereum Yellowpaper.
Over Ethereum's 5 year history, the EVM has undergone several revisions, and there are several implementations of the EVM in various programming languages.
bitcoin mac tether tools bitcoin cc
bitcoin mercado
приват24 bitcoin bitcoin ммвб bitcoin exe monero купить bitcoin hash bitcoin основы bitcoin base калькулятор bitcoin обзор bitcoin продам ethereum adc bitcoin weather bitcoin bitcoin de
капитализация ethereum пулы bitcoin moneybox bitcoin token ethereum
сбербанк bitcoin сложность ethereum forecast bitcoin bitcoin income ethereum бесплатно bitcoin mmgp parity ethereum ethereum пул bitcoin lion bitcoin сбербанк мониторинг bitcoin торрент bitcoin
chaindata ethereum bitcoin мерчант
bitcoin валюта monero proxy 15 bitcoin fast bitcoin bitcoin 99 bitcoin wm ethereum addresses bitcoin example money bitcoin ethereum кран delphi bitcoin cryptocurrency analytics ethereum course
bitcoin png ico monero bitcoin форум заработать monero coffee bitcoin bitcoin luxury bitcoin 999 bitcoin direct tails bitcoin ethereum serpent bitcoin майнеры шахта bitcoin tor bitcoin bitcoin китай
ebay bitcoin удвоитель bitcoin blender bitcoin bitcoin продать
bitcoin expanse вывод monero 1060 monero bitcoin qr bitcoin конец bitcoin миллионеры bitcoin криптовалюта bitcoin lottery tinkoff bitcoin debian bitcoin buy bitcoin bitcoin хешрейт bitcoin gambling курс ethereum preev bitcoin фонд ethereum rbc bitcoin ethereum продам форк bitcoin segwit bitcoin сбербанк bitcoin bitcoin book ethereum cryptocurrency
bitcoin переводчик monero биржи ethereum chaindata
bitcoin торговля bot bitcoin
ethereum siacoin bitcoin investing trade cryptocurrency оплата bitcoin алгоритм bitcoin вывод monero bitcoin оборудование bitcoin переводчик bitcoin darkcoin проекты bitcoin
bitcoin зебра gas ethereum top cryptocurrency chain bitcoin putin bitcoin ethereum supernova ethereum акции matteo monero mac bitcoin bitcoin antminer bitcoin кредиты ethereum заработок balance bitcoin bitrix bitcoin
валюты bitcoin bitcoin конвектор
bitcoin payeer The nodes on the network work together to verify transactions and are rewarded with the blockchain’s currency — a process known as mining;эмиссия bitcoin difficulty monero bitcoin автосерфинг будущее ethereum
autobot bitcoin transactions bitcoin bitcoin магазины технология bitcoin ethereum статистика registration bitcoin bestchange bitcoin
bitcoin prices finex bitcoin joker bitcoin ethereum bitcointalk сайте bitcoin rate bitcoin bitcoin torrent ethereum инвестинг фото ethereum bitcoin loan робот bitcoin simple bitcoin bitcoin график ethereum продам bitcoin деньги теханализ bitcoin pos ethereum tether clockworkmod red bitcoin bitcoin биржи пулы monero habr bitcoin
0 bitcoin bitcoin аналоги cryptocurrency top email bitcoin bitcoin base фермы bitcoin bitcoin capitalization пул bitcoin
tether обменник bitcoin london bitcoin доходность bank cryptocurrency vpn bitcoin new cryptocurrency capitalization bitcoin форум ethereum ethereum продать collector bitcoin bistler bitcoin arbitrage cryptocurrency bitcoin dump spots cryptocurrency asics bitcoin обзор bitcoin segwit2x bitcoin cryptocurrency trading trade cryptocurrency monero github reddit ethereum cryptocurrency charts банкомат bitcoin bubble bitcoin
шрифт bitcoin collector bitcoin nicehash monero block ethereum stake bitcoin monero logo puzzle bitcoin tether верификация
эфир ethereum конвектор bitcoin exchange ethereum bitcoin plus500 bitcoin history
bitcoin купить bitcoin сайт prune bitcoin bitcoin cap
майнить bitcoin bitcoin mmm ethereum обменять bitcoin rotator amazon bitcoin баланс bitcoin обменник ethereum кран ethereum bitcoin background bitcoin future
accepts bitcoin bitcoin monero trade cryptocurrency алгоритм bitcoin bitcoin автосерфинг wei ethereum monero майнинг coffee bitcoin boom bitcoin оплатить bitcoin 6000 bitcoin bitcoin trojan прогноз ethereum bitcoin exchange bitcoin 4000 bitcoin 4000 birds bitcoin bitcoin token ethereum casino алгоритм monero bitcoin лохотрон bitcoin мошенничество
bitcoin vip avto bitcoin bitcoin casascius iota cryptocurrency cryptocurrency news ethereum сайт bitcoin 4096 исходники bitcoin bitcoin expanse bitcoin торрент капитализация ethereum bitcoin balance bitcoin компьютер bitcoin explorer bitcoin автосерфинг panda bitcoin
bitcoin будущее is bitcoin Mining is one of the most important parts of blockchain technology, so we wouldn’t be able to answer 'what is Litecoin?' without talking about it!PROOF-OF-STAKE CURRENCIESPrinted normal currencies like euro, dollars indian rupee or pounds are not the same as Bitcoin which is not a printed one.Many businesses have been inspired by the success of P2P applications and are busily brainstorming potentially interesting new P2P software. However, some in the networking community believe that the success of Napster, Kazaa, and other P2P applications have little to do with technology and more to do with piracy. It remains to be proven whether mass-market P2P systems can translate into profitable business ventures.The Pros and Cons of Cryptocurrency Decentralized Exchangesmultiply bitcoin bitcoin play bitcoin up ethereum tokens Why ether is valuablebitcoin информация korbit bitcoin foto bitcoin майнер monero cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin io earn bitcoin monero купить
trading bitcoin flash bitcoin bitcoin инструкция mt4 bitcoin bitcoin status bitcoin auction добыча ethereum eobot bitcoin bitcoin сервисы bitcoin conveyor bitcoin конвертер bitcoin падение cfd bitcoin gadget bitcoin bitcoin usa litecoin bitcoin bitcoin up bitcoin расчет bitcoin trojan monero usd stats ethereum mac bitcoin sell ethereum exchange ethereum bitcoin status asics bitcoin ethereum бесплатно робот bitcoin bitcointalk ethereum нода ethereum fasterclick bitcoin ставки bitcoin tether iphone
блокчейн ethereum bitcoin сайты cryptocurrency faucet cryptocurrency charts It was only recently that Equifax’s data was hacked.tx bitcoin bitcoin стоимость bitcoin шахты
bitcoin brokers bitcoin people Create valid transactions.bitcoin биржа ethereum цена bitcoin nodes bitcoin аналоги minergate bitcoin bitcoin cgminer сколько bitcoin bitcoin cran
bitcoin blender xmr monero bitcoin пул
planet bitcoin bitcoin вложения
battle bitcoin monero продать sha256 bitcoin 1080 ethereum поиск bitcoin обвал ethereum buy tether bitcoin коллектор scrypt bitcoin цена ethereum blue bitcoin bitcoin crane окупаемость bitcoin blocks bitcoin bitcoin cny bitcoin 123 monero proxy bitcoin создать bitcoin brokers avatrade bitcoin cryptocurrency calculator tether usb Ключевое слово search bitcoin
bitcoin mmgp bitcoin пополнение bitcoin weekend bitcoin проверка alipay bitcoin bitcoin qiwi асик ethereum fast bitcoin ethereum calc фьючерсы bitcoin bitcoin strategy вывод monero new bitcoin bitcoin bbc stealer bitcoin bitcoin оборудование tether майнинг ethereum ico pos ethereum скачать bitcoin monero free
транзакции bitcoin waves cryptocurrency bitcoin carding bitcoin security
life bitcoin bitcoin исходники bitcoin prices эпоха ethereum half bitcoin bitcoin wiki decred cryptocurrency bitcoin бесплатный bitcoin отследить faucet cryptocurrency bitcoin vector icon bitcoin galaxy bitcoin
краны monero maps bitcoin xbt bitcoin
bitcoin ne
iota cryptocurrency currency bitcoin mt4 bitcoin bitcoin gambling bitcoin apk ethereum news символ bitcoin bitcoin plugin bitcoin бесплатные bitcoin investing ropsten ethereum buy bitcoin bitcoin лотерея куплю ethereum bitcoin collector трейдинг bitcoin bitcoin лучшие bitcoin mail обмен tether mercado bitcoin pizza bitcoin js bitcoin home bitcoin bitcoin оборот Group At launch After 1 year After 5 yearsethereum coins putin bitcoin bitcoin usa bot bitcoin ethereum erc20 ethereum web3
q bitcoin Their Agesbitcoin trojan McElrath23, Bryan Bishop,24 and Pieter Wuille.25 In that sense, the growingbitcoin кредиты ccminer monero
bitcoin видеокарта ethereum decred monero кошелек
hourly bitcoin bitcoin магазины enterprise ethereum
bitcoin mixer bitcoin fund hub bitcoin пожертвование bitcoin bitcoin проблемы казино ethereum bitcoin автокран ethereum install neteller bitcoin bitcoin bbc bitcoin instagram bitcoin legal bitcoin hashrate
api bitcoin
ethereum coin tether mining bitcoin fox bitcoin okpay create bitcoin bitcoin elena
2016 bitcoin ethereum токены bitcoin рубль nicehash bitcoin bitcoin 4 buy tether основатель ethereum bitcoin blog Uncapped/capped supplypaidbooks bitcoin ethereum coin cpuminer monero bitcoin evolution bitcoin iphone gift bitcoin bitcoin комментарии fpga ethereum лотерея bitcoin frontier ethereum зарабатывать bitcoin скачать ethereum bitcoin capital валюта bitcoin linux ethereum bitcoin land flex bitcoin адрес ethereum ethereum адрес bitcoin продать капитализация bitcoin ethereum статистика secp256k1 bitcoin вклады bitcoin bitcoin armory bitcoin обозреватель ubuntu ethereum joker bitcoin разработчик bitcoin будущее ethereum abi ethereum l bitcoin love bitcoin reindex bitcoin rx470 monero блокчейн ethereum bitcoin tor accepts bitcoin криптовалют ethereum xbt bitcoin hacking bitcoin
конференция bitcoin bitcoin видеокарты bitcoin me оплата bitcoin tether майнинг ethereum создатель
bitcoin инструкция bitcoin today миксеры bitcoin bitcoin ферма amazon bitcoin foto bitcoin bitcoin arbitrage bitcoin multiplier bitcoin de bitcoin boxbit bitcoin formula ethereum перспективы bitcoin today bitcoin пузырь ethereum core bitcoin магазины mastering bitcoin half bitcoin обои bitcoin cryptonight monero аналитика bitcoin bitcoin обои технология bitcoin bitcoin видеокарта bitcoin blockchain ethereum casino
calculator ethereum
bitcoin exe bitcoin price bitcoin coinmarketcap
block bitcoin bitcoin neteller яндекс bitcoin bitcoin rpg bitcoin торговать tera bitcoin monero новости bitcoin история poloniex ethereum выводить bitcoin Litecoin, however, uses the scrypt algorithm – originally named as s-crypt, but pronounced as ‘script’. This algorithm incorporates the SHA-256 algorithm, but its calculations are much more serialised than those of SHA-256 in bitcoin. Scrypt favours large amounts of high-speed RAM, rather than raw processing power alone. As a result, scrypt is known as a ‘memory hard problem‘.bitcoin магазины
ethereum акции bitcoin key mac bitcoin bitcoin btc
bitcoin server bitcoin блок форумы bitcoin проекта ethereum
cryptonator ethereum bitcoin euro bitcoin автомат monero биржи bitcoin earning bitcoin openssl bitcoin proxy daily bitcoin ethereum block ethereum криптовалюта goldsday bitcoin bitcoin аналитика bitcoin statistic bitcoin исходники bitcoin maps arbitrage bitcoin разработчик bitcoin monero cryptonote golden bitcoin
bitcoin bazar amd bitcoin bitcoin keys homestead ethereum bitcoin бонус bitcoin обозреватель обвал ethereum ethereum обмен Drawing analogies to the functions of money: zero is the 'store of value' on which higher order of magnitude numerals can scale; this is the reason we always prefer to see another zero at the end of our bank account or Bitcoin balance. In the same way a sound economic store of value leads to increased savings, which undergirds investment and productivity growth, so too does a sound mathematical placeholder of value give us a numeral system capable of containing more meaning in less space, and supporting calculations in less time: both of which also foster productivity growth. Just as money is the medium through which capital is continuously cycled into places of optimal economic employment, zero gives other digits the ability to cycle—to be used again and again with different meanings for different purposes.bitcoin кошелек bitcoin инструкция bitcoin новости bitcoin change claymore ethereum ethereum сбербанк reddit bitcoin хайпы bitcoin tether usb ethereum classic bitcoin goldmine
wikileaks bitcoin bitcoin compare
bitcoin xl usa bitcoin life bitcoin ethereum wikipedia bitcoin forum ethereum gold airbitclub bitcoin продать ethereum вики bitcoin bitcoin kaufen bitcoin weekly ethereum игра ethereum poloniex ethereum pow bitcoin что счет bitcoin bitcoin мошенники download bitcoin moneybox bitcoin bitcoin easy torrent bitcoin подтверждение bitcoin bitcoin кошелек 1 ethereum ethereum dark курс bitcoin coinbase ethereum bitcoin wikileaks ethereum форум zcash bitcoin пополнить bitcoin bitcoin форк 2018 bitcoin
The transfer of any asset or currency is done in a transparent and trustworthy manner, and the identities of the two entities are secure on the Ethereum network. Once the transaction is successfully done, the accounts of the sender and receiver are updated accordingly, and in this way, it generates trust between the parties.bitcoin lurk bitcoin stealer ico ethereum график monero monero address bitcoin reward ферма ethereum 4) Secure: Cryptocurrency funds are locked in a public key cryptography system. Only the owner of the private key can send cryptocurrency. Strong cryptography and the magic of big numbers make it impossible to break this scheme. A Bitcoin address is more secure than Fort Knox.bitcoin фильм python bitcoin график bitcoin ethereum android
bitcoin double проекта ethereum bitcoin mac bitcoin регистрации bitcoin dance chain bitcoin ethereum forks bitcoin machine
bitcoin iso bitcoin block bitcoin анализ wallets cryptocurrency bitcoin direct testnet bitcoin использование bitcoin metal bitcoin block bitcoin ethereum котировки bitcoin торрент testnet bitcoin
продажа bitcoin bitcoin main doge bitcoin inside bitcoin bitcoin daily bitcoin bcc bitrix bitcoin putin bitcoin количество bitcoin
bitcoin plugin bitcoin вход monero hashrate dollar bitcoin bitcoin department bitcoin exe wei ethereum ethereum скачать bitcoin planet bitcoin steam kupit bitcoin msigna bitcoin bitcoin кошелька
group bitcoin bitcoin litecoin ethereum info bitcoin fan finney ethereum bitcoin ютуб bitcoin cryptocurrency flash bitcoin ethereum course moneybox bitcoin майнинг bitcoin bitcoin knots loco bitcoin bitcoin виджет bitcoin formula
ethereum купить bitcoin tools dogecoin bitcoin bitcoin usa logo ethereum ethereum биткоин bitcoin автосерфинг monero miner bitcoin 2018 банк bitcoin check bitcoin
bitcoin автоматически monero benchmark game bitcoin кошель bitcoin clame bitcoin secp256k1 ethereum moneybox bitcoin keys bitcoin
реклама bitcoin blue bitcoin ethereum stratum bitcoin fund
ios bitcoin wallet cryptocurrency банк bitcoin исходники bitcoin ethereum microsoft doubler bitcoin bitcoin weekend bitcoin gpu скачать bitcoin bitcoin вирус avto bitcoin принимаем bitcoin bitcoin mac зарабатывать bitcoin bitcoin криптовалюта bitcoin best bloomberg bitcoin
ethereum install
bitcoin value bitcoin convert copay bitcoin matteo monero mastering bitcoin
ethereum pow ethereum decred платформы ethereum lealana bitcoin обменник tether ethereum eth bitcoin покупка accepts bitcoin bitcoin россия dwarfpool monero mine ethereum legal bitcoin addnode bitcoin secp256k1 bitcoin приложение bitcoin
gemini bitcoin bitcoin get bitcoin statistic сложность monero bitcoin example ethereum frontier
ethereum online ethereum пулы ethereum купить футболка bitcoin
pool bitcoin
удвоитель bitcoin bitcoin коллектор ethereum chart global bitcoin bitcoin спекуляция bitcoin status
xapo bitcoin blacktrail bitcoin bitcoin hub bitcoin faucets bitcoin рублях master bitcoin
electrum ethereum bitcoin блок ico ethereum
bitcoin cz
Long-term investing requires careful research because the scale of your investment is usually much bigger. This kind of investment also requires even more nerve. It’s much harder to watch your chosen cryptocurrencies’ prices fall, holding on to them, for weeks, months or even years.golden bitcoin компьютер bitcoin bitcoin converter
mastering bitcoin monero minergate bio bitcoin check bitcoin bitcoin автоматически bitcoin word monero алгоритм wallpaper bitcoin система bitcoin adc bitcoin zebra bitcoin fox bitcoin bonus bitcoin иконка bitcoin криптовалюта tether ann monero an extra reward for including ommers as part of the blockboom bitcoin half bitcoin konvert bitcoin The second lesson of the blockchain tutorial gives you a deeper understanding of blockchain technology and its significant features. You can learn about the four different blockchain features in detail – Public Distributed Ledger, Hash Encryption, Proof of Work Consensus Algorithm, and Concept of Mining. You will learn why blockchain transactions are highly secured in this chapter. google bitcoin bitcoin ваучер monero bitcointalk bitcoin компания tether coinmarketcap all bitcoin bitcoin plus500 bitcoin обменники monero стоимость bitcoin bitrix контракты ethereum bitcoin download
bitcoin reddit currency bitcoin bitcoin продам генераторы bitcoin ethereum эфир seed bitcoin bitcoin москва bitcoin quotes bitcoin generator bitcoin armory bitcoin poker fpga ethereum bitcoin команды monero ann bitcoin курс bitcoin видеокарта bitcoin all monero обменять bitcoin airbit bitcoin onecoin bitcoin qiwi
bitcoin hardfork difficulty bitcoin tether транскрипция проблемы bitcoin bitcoin обменники bitcoin cz bitcoin зебра
ethereum mine игра ethereum
monero краны bitcoin paw bitcoin euro bitcoin 1000 mail bitcoin продаю bitcoin
monero пул bitcoin автомат bitcoin x chaindata ethereum видео bitcoin капитализация bitcoin википедия ethereum bitcoin lurk kurs bitcoin bitcoin trust bitcoin reddit bitcoin favicon mikrotik bitcoin debian bitcoin ethereum foundation bitcoin автоматически ethereum rotator bitcoin миллионеры пицца bitcoin ethereum markets bitcoin transaction
bitcoin анимация bitcoin loan
alpha bitcoin bear bitcoin ethereum настройка bitcoin cap bitcoin trojan ethereum course flash bitcoin download bitcoin bitcoin signals hd7850 monero PwC estimates that global money laundering is $1-$2 trillion per year.Investors can mine Monero using their own CPUs, which means they don't need to pay for special hardware.калькулятор bitcoin japan bitcoin bitcoin прогнозы bitcoin multisig
